Document Type

Article

Author ORCID Identifier

Justin Whitaker  https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8552-5361  

Greg Droge  https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5247-8573  

Journal/Book Title/Conference

Future Transportation

Volume

6

Issue

5

Publisher

MDPI AG

Publication Date

9-27-2026

Journal Article Version

Version of Record

First Page

1

Creative Commons License

Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.

Last Page

15

Abstract

Adopting battery electric vehicles (EVs) for vehicle fleets requires scheduling charging alongside day-to-day operations. This problem is complicated by complex utility cost structures, limited battery capacity, and competition for shared charging resources. Existing methods that simultaneously schedule routes and charging neither address the full cost structure nor employ high-fidelity charging models, and no prior work analyzes fleets containing vehicles with heterogeneous routing constraints. This work addresses these gaps by combining a state-of-the-art flexible-schedule formulation with time-of-use (TOU) demand costs and a non-linear, variable-rate charging model as drawn from additional state-of-the-art works. The proposed method is validated against two state-of-the-art methods, achieving cost reductions of 89% and 24%, respectively. An analysis across fleet compositions that mix fixed-schedule and flexible-schedule vehicles reveals a trade-off between cost and computational complexity, with a 50/50 split providing the best balance for the scenarios considered.

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