Abstract
The Moon is a very useful calibration target for Earth-observing sensors in orbit because its surface is radiometrically stable and it has a radiant flux comparable to Earth scenes. To predict the lunar irradiance given an illumination and viewing geometry, the United States Geological Survey (USGS) has developed the Robotic Lunar Observatory (ROLO) Model of exo-atmospheric lunar spectral irradiance. The USGS ROLO model represents the current most precise knowledge of lunar spectral irradiance and is used frequently as a relative calibration standard by space-borne Earth-observing sensors. However, its accuracy as an absolute reference may be limited to several percent and it is not SI-traceable. Advancing the model to be a more accurate absolute lunar reference requires new measurements. The objective of the airborne LUnar Spectral Irradiance (Air-LUSI) mission is to make highly accurate, SI-traceable measurements of lunar spectral irradiance in the VNIR spectral region from NASA’s high-altitude ER-2 aircraft, above 95% of the atmosphere. To that end, the Air-LUSI system uses a non-imaging telescope system that robotically tracks the Moon in flight, fiber-optic coupled to a stable spectrometer housed in an enclosure providing a robustly controlled environment. The spectrometer measures about 350 to 1050 nm at 3.8 nm resolution, with 0.8 nm sampling. The instrument is reproducibly stable to 0.3% and rigorously calibrated before and after campaigns and flights using a similar transfer standard spectrograph. An on-board LED source is used to monitor the instrument response during flight ascent and descent. Air-LUSI successfully conducted a Demonstration Flight Campaign on five consecutive nights from 12 to 17 November 2019, corresponding to lunar phase angles of about 10°, 21°, 34°, 46° and 59°. Each night, the Air-LUSI system observed the Moon from above 68,000 feet altitude for 30 to 40 minutes. To reach a target uncertainty for lunar irradiance of 0.5% (k=1), processing the raw data to exo-atmospheric lunar spectral irradiance required accounting for various known behaviors of the instrument, such as thermal and stray light corrections. Additional measures were taken to address variances idiosyncratic to the campaign and were factored into the measurement error budget. The resulting error budget currently stands at less than 1% over most of the VNIR range. This paper reviews the steps taken towards high accuracy results for Demonstration Flight Campaign, how they factored in the error budget, and how our uncertainty target can be met in future campaigns.
Measurements of Absolute, SI Traceable Lunar Irradiance with the Airborne LUnar Spectral Irradiance (air LUSI) Instrument
The Moon is a very useful calibration target for Earth-observing sensors in orbit because its surface is radiometrically stable and it has a radiant flux comparable to Earth scenes. To predict the lunar irradiance given an illumination and viewing geometry, the United States Geological Survey (USGS) has developed the Robotic Lunar Observatory (ROLO) Model of exo-atmospheric lunar spectral irradiance. The USGS ROLO model represents the current most precise knowledge of lunar spectral irradiance and is used frequently as a relative calibration standard by space-borne Earth-observing sensors. However, its accuracy as an absolute reference may be limited to several percent and it is not SI-traceable. Advancing the model to be a more accurate absolute lunar reference requires new measurements. The objective of the airborne LUnar Spectral Irradiance (Air-LUSI) mission is to make highly accurate, SI-traceable measurements of lunar spectral irradiance in the VNIR spectral region from NASA’s high-altitude ER-2 aircraft, above 95% of the atmosphere. To that end, the Air-LUSI system uses a non-imaging telescope system that robotically tracks the Moon in flight, fiber-optic coupled to a stable spectrometer housed in an enclosure providing a robustly controlled environment. The spectrometer measures about 350 to 1050 nm at 3.8 nm resolution, with 0.8 nm sampling. The instrument is reproducibly stable to 0.3% and rigorously calibrated before and after campaigns and flights using a similar transfer standard spectrograph. An on-board LED source is used to monitor the instrument response during flight ascent and descent. Air-LUSI successfully conducted a Demonstration Flight Campaign on five consecutive nights from 12 to 17 November 2019, corresponding to lunar phase angles of about 10°, 21°, 34°, 46° and 59°. Each night, the Air-LUSI system observed the Moon from above 68,000 feet altitude for 30 to 40 minutes. To reach a target uncertainty for lunar irradiance of 0.5% (k=1), processing the raw data to exo-atmospheric lunar spectral irradiance required accounting for various known behaviors of the instrument, such as thermal and stray light corrections. Additional measures were taken to address variances idiosyncratic to the campaign and were factored into the measurement error budget. The resulting error budget currently stands at less than 1% over most of the VNIR range. This paper reviews the steps taken towards high accuracy results for Demonstration Flight Campaign, how they factored in the error budget, and how our uncertainty target can be met in future campaigns.