Document Type

Article

Journal/Book Title/Conference

Algorithms

Author ORCID Identifier

Seyed Reza Haddadi https://orcid.org/0009-0007-1732-3964

Masoumeh Hashemi https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8649-5208

Volume

18

Issue

11

Publisher

MDPI AG

Publication Date

10-24-2025

Journal Article Version

Version of Record

First Page

1

Last Page

22

Creative Commons License

Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.

Abstract

Previous researches have proved that the synchronized use of inexpensive RGB images, image processing, and machine learning (ML) can accurately identify crop stress. Four Machine Learning Image Modules (MLIMs) were developed to enable the rapid and cost-effective identification of sugar beet stresses caused by water and/or nitrogen deficiencies. RGB images representing stressed and non-stressed crops were used in the analysis. To improve robustness, data augmentation was applied, generating six variations on each image and expanding the dataset from 150 to 900 images for training and testing. Each MLIM was trained and tested using 54 combinations derived from nine canopy and RGB-based input features and six ML algorithms. The most accurate MLIM used RGB bands as inputs to a Multilayer Perceptron, achieving 96.67% accuracy for overall stress detection, and 95.93% and 94.44% for water and nitrogen stress identification, respectively. A Random Forest model, using only the green band, achieved 92.22% accuracy for stress detection while requiring only one-fourth the computation time. For specific stresses, a Random Forest (RF) model using a Scale-Invariant Feature Transform descriptor (SIFT) achieved 93.33% for water stress, while RF with RGB bands and canopy cover reached 85.56% for nitrogen stress. To address the trade-off between accuracy and computational cost, a bargaining theory-based framework was applied. This approach identified optimal MLIMs that balance performance and execution efficiency.

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