Document Type

Article

Author ORCID Identifier

Saeed Ahmad https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6896-2722

Journal/Book Title/Conference

Human Vaccines & Immunotherapeutics

Volume

21

Issue

1

Publisher

Taylor & Francis Inc.

Publication Date

8-27-2025

Journal Article Version

Version of Record

First Page

1

Last Page

18

Creative Commons License

Creative Commons Attribution-Noncommercial 4.0 License
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-Noncommercial 4.0 License

Abstract

Vaccine hesitancy, where individuals are reluctant to get vaccinated, is a significant issue, especially in the event of a pandemic, and poses a major concern. We explore a few predictors of vaccine hesitancy in Pakistan using a cross-sectional study. For this purpose, 562 respondents registered their responses through an online questionnaire from March 31, 2021, to May 28, 2021, during the third wave of the COVID-19 pandemic. Cronbach’s Alpha was used for Internal Consistency Reliability, while Factor Analysis was used for Construct Validity. We applied bivariate linear regression analysis for hypothesis testing. Fear of COVID-19 was higher among respondents as they suffered nervousness, fear of morbidity and mortality, and uncomfortable thinking about COVID-19. In vaccine hesitancy, two-fifths were unsure about, and concerned about the effectiveness of vaccines for new diseases, and the potential for serious side effects. More than half were exposed to negative information about COVID-19 vaccinations. One-third agreed that natural immunity against COVID-19 was a better option than vaccination. More than half perceived that vaccines could protect people from serious COVID-19 diseases and effectively control the spread of the virus, but they were unsure about new vaccines carrying more risks. Bivariate linear regression analysis revealed that younger age, lower knowledge about COVID-19, not quarantining due to COVID-19 symptoms, lower perceived effectiveness of vaccines in reducing the risk of COVID-19, previous negative experiences with vaccination, lower fear of COVID-19, and lower level of trust in health institutions were associated with higher vaccine hesitancy in Pakistan. We recommend further studies that should expand the sociocultural base of predictors of COVID-19 vaccine hesitancy by employing a mixed-methods research approach.

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