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Chapter 01: Project Objectives and Research Approach
D. Layne Coppock and Corinne Valdivia
In this chapter we briefly describe the origin, mandate, organisation and philosophy of the Small Ruminant Collaborative Research Support Programme (SR-CRSP). This is approached from a global perspective to a local perspective relevant to Bolivia.
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Chapter 02: National, Regional and Local Context
Christian Jetté, Humberto Alzérreca Angelo, and D. Layne Coppock
To better understand today’s constraints and opportunities for improving small ruminant production systems on the Bolivian Altiplano, it is important to first consider the broader contexts of environment and social history. This chapter provides an introductory overview of secondary information concerning major ecological regions of Bolivia, constituent agroecosystems and how ecological regions are interrelated in terms of climate, geography, macro-economics and agricultural policy. Key aspects of cultural change and political history are also reviewed. These are important because present-day values and behaviours of Andean campesinos, as well as their use of agricultural technologies, have been profoundly shaped by forces including the indigenous Aymara culture, Incan occupation, Spanish colonialism, the initial Republican Period and contemporary policies of the Bolivian government.
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Chapter 03: Ecology and Natural Resources of San Jose Llanga
João S. de Queiroz, David Layne Coppock, Humberto Alzérreca-Angelo, and Brien E. Norton
Development and change in traditional societies is strongly affected by interactions between humans and their natural environments. Management practices used by most low-input, rural societies represent an amalgamation of technologies, social rules and organisational structures that have been tested over time and found suitable for sustainable exploitation of resources. In many cases, however, changes in population, social values, market opportunities, government policies or technology alter a delicate balance between humans and sustainable resource use. Given these critical relationships, a thorough knowledge of the biophysical environment is essential to comprehend and attempt to improve low-input production systems such as SJL.
Our overall purpose in this chapter is to characterise the environment and natural resources of the Cantón of SJL. This is accomplished in two steps. First the climate, surficial geology, hydrology, soils and vegetation are described. Descriptions include brief accounts of land use (i.e., cultivation, grazing, fuel wood collection, etc.) for broadly defined geomorphic units. Second, an analysis is presented concerning selected aspects of ecosystem dynamics at various spatial and temporal scales.
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Chapter 04: Household Economy and Community Dynamics at San José Llanga
Corinne Valdivia, Christian Jetté, Lisa Markowitz, Jorge Céspedes, João S. de Queiroz, Carmen Murillo Quiroga, and Elizabeth Dunn
This chapter has several main purposes. One is to provide a contemporary image of the peasant production system at San José Llanga (SJL) from 1992 to 1995, the years of our field research. Another purpose is to provide a framework of the historical processes that have influenced local society in this century. We wanted to know about standards of living, diets and food security, income and expenditure patterns, gender roles and aspirations of the people. We wanted to know about population dynamics, community leadership, resource tenure and off-farm activities. We wanted information on the types of crops and livestock produced and the contributions that different commodities made to household economies and market integration. This empirical information would be used to answer questions of practical and theoretical merit. First, what was the trajectory of the community in broad social and economic terms (i.e., positive, negative or neutral)? In other words, is there reason for concern in terms of living standards, food security and prospects for economic growth? Second, what was the mixture of market versus non-market factors in the production system, and how do these contribute to human welfare? How have new technologies contributed to improving human welfare? Are new technologies replacing old technologies, or have they been combined in novel ways?
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Chapter 05: The Grazing Livestock of San José Llanga: Multiple-species Resource Use and the Management and Productivity of Sheep
David Layne Coppock, Isaac M. Ortega, Jim Yazman, João S. de Quieroz, and Humberto Alzérreca-Angelo
The main objective of the joint IBTA/SR-CRSP project in Bolivia was to assess the overall role of small ruminants in the ecological and economic sustainability of an agropastoral system. Prominent was a mandate for us to investigate: (1) Whether small ruminants were important contributors to environmental degradation; and (2) whether there were feasible improvements in management that could mitigate negative impacts of small ruminants on natural resources and increase efficiency of animal production (see Chapter 1: Project objectives and research approach). These issues are important in light of recent controversy concerning environmental degradation of the world’s rangelands. On one hand people and livestock are blamed (Sinclair and Fryxell 1985; Cloudsley-Thompson 1988) while on another hand climate, or change in climate, is cited as a key factor (Rasmusson 1987; Ellis and Swift 1988). If livestock are not to blame then efforts to de-stock traditional pastoral systems could be in error (Behnke and Scoones 1991).
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Chapter 06: Household Socioeconomic Diversity and Coping Response to a Drought Year at San José Llanga
Corinne Valdivia
The first objective of work presented in this chapter was to examine if households at SJL indeed pursued different economic strategies. For example, would some households rely more on crops, livestock, wage labour or various mixtures of these enterprises, and why? The second objective was to determine how different economic strategies influenced household sustainability, namely the ability to generate wealth, be opportunistic and cope with drought. In particular, I was interested in the role of livestock (especially small ruminants), off-farm employment and income transfers in mitigating fluctuations in household income (Rosenzweig and Wolpin 1985; Kusterer 1989; Fafchamps 1992; Reardon et al 1992; Webb 1992; Fafchamps et al 1998). Households that rely on food crop production could be expected to suffer marked declines in income due to drought since crop yields would be reduced. Having livestock, wage labour, and/or options for income transfers would be important to maintain income and hence enhance food security in a drought year. A mix of enterprises, also referred to as a diversified portfolio, has been found important elsewhere in promoting food security and sustainability among peasant households in variable environments (Cotlear 1989; Kusterer 1989; von Braun et al 1989; Reardon et al 1992). Some researchers have found that as income increases the level of diversification decreases, especially with well-developed markets (von Braun et al 1989). Others have found diversification and income growth go hand-in-hand to fully utilize resources (Ellis 1993) and/or because markets are unreliable (Fafchamps 1992). In the southern Andean region of Peru diversification grew with commercialisation (Cotlear 1989).
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Chapter 07: Patterns of Technology Adoption at San José Llanga: Lessons in Agricultural Change
Lisa Markowitz and Corinne Valdivia
The objectives for this chapter include determination of: (1) How social and economic events have influenced key phases of technology transfer at San José Llanga (SJL); (2) how household- level factors have influenced adoption of new technology; (3) whether males and females, as well as various wealth classes, have similarly benefited from adoption of new technology; and (4) whether technology adoption has influenced sustainability of the production system. Answering these questions helps us understand what factors facilitate or constrain technology transfer to rural producers. Technology transfer is a vital, culminating and problematic process for research.
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Chapter 08: Conclusions and Recommendations
David Layne Coppock, Corinne Valdivia, Jim Yazman, Christian Jetté, João S. de Queiroz, Lisa Markowitz, and Isaac M. Ortega
Here we review brief summaries by chapter and then derive some integrated conclusions across chapters. Recommendations are presented with respect to further research, outreach and policy consideration. Because several years have passed between the end of our field work and publication of this synthesis volume, we end with an epilogue that highlights changes and key events that happened at San José Llanga (SJL) and with collaborating institutions in Bolivia between 1996-9.
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