Expectation Effects: Pygmalion and the Initial 20 Years of Research1

Document Type

Article

Journal/Book Title/Conference

Educational Research and Evaluation

Volume

24

Issue

3-5

Publisher

Routledge

Publication Date

11-22-2018

First Page

99

Last Page

123

Abstract

This article reviews Rosenthal and Jacobson’s (1968) seminal study, Pygmalion in the Classroom (PC). We consider what preceded PC, the actual study, immediate criticisms of it, Rosenthal’s reactions to the criticism, and, importantly, the research that followed PC from 1968 to roughly 1990. Despite critical criticisms of it, we conclude that PC had a tremendous impact because it stimulated researchers to study expectation effects in the classroom that established that some teachers do form and communicate differential expectations to their students and that some students internalise these expectations in ways that manifest in their actual performance. The research that followed PC has yielded rich concepts and findings that are relevant for theory, practice, and social policy.

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